Graphene: applications and challenges of large-scale synthesis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24933/e-usf.v9i1.464Keywords:
Graphene synthesis, Nanomaterials, Top-down and Bottom-up methods, Graphene large-scale production, PECVD, Graphene Applications, Graphene Scalability challengesAbstract
The applications of graphene are becoming increasingly broad, and the demand for this two-dimensional material with remarkable properties continues to grow. Graphene is a nanomaterial with a thickness of a single atom, an sp2-hybridized carbon allotrope, where each atom forms three bonds in a hexagonal structure, confined to two dimensions. This study addresses the main methods of graphene synthesis, categorized into top-down and bottom-up mechanisms. A systematic literature review of scientific articles on graphene synthesis was conducted to identify the most suitable methods for large-scale production. Various characteristics such as scalability, efficiency, economic and environmental sustainability were evaluated. Additionally, the applications of different types of graphene produced by various methods were analyzed. Graphene can be physically exfoliated from graphite, while graphene foams can be obtained through microwave-assisted exfoliation, graphene oxide is produced by chemical exfoliation, graphene flakes are synthesized via flash Joule heating, and high-quality few-layer graphene films are generated through chemical vapor deposition. The study concluded that the most suitable method for large-scale graphene synthesis currently is PECVD, capable of forming single-layer pure graphene films with large areas. The feasibility of other methods was discussed, raising questions regarding their applicability, utility, efficiency, and the ongoing challenges related to the scalability of the presented methods.
Downloads
References
BOKOBZA, L., BRUNEEL, J.-L. & COUZI, M. Raman spectra of carbon-based materials (from graphite to carbon black) and of some silicone composites. J. Carbon Res. 1, 77–94, 2015.
CAO, Y.; FATEMI, V.; FANG, S.; WATANABE, K.; TANIGUCHI, T.; KAXIRAS, E.;
CETESB. Ficha de Informação de Produto Químico. Disponível em: https://sistemasinter.cetesb.sp.gov.br/produtos/ficha_completa1.asp?consulta=ÁCIDO%20CLOROSSULFÔNICO. Acesso em outubro de 2024.
CHEN, X.; ZHANG, L.; CHEN, S. Large area CVD growth of graphene. Synthetic Metals, Volume 210, Part A, Pages 95-108, 2015.
CLEGG, B. The Graphene Revolution: The Weird Science of the Ultra-thin. Icon Books, 2018.
EREŠ, Z.; HRABAR, S. Low-cost synthesis of high-quality graphene in do-it-yourself CVD reactor. Automatika, Volume 59 - Issue 3-4, 2018.
FARMANI, Z.; VETERE, A.; PFÄNDER, N.; LEHMANN, C. W.; SCHRADER, W. Naturally Occurring Allotropes of Carbon. ACS Publications. DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c04662. 2024.
GIAMELLO, E.; PISANI, C.; RICCA, F.; ROETTI, C. Calculated band structure of rare gases adsorbed on graphite. Surface Science, Volume 49, Issue 2, Pages 401-416, ISSN 0039-6028, 1975.
HONE, J.; MARTEL, R.; BARMAK, K. et al. Reproducible graphene synthesis by oxygen-free chemical vapour deposition. Nature, 630, Pages 636–642, 2024.
JAROSZ, A.; SKODA, M.; DUDEK, I.; SZUKIEWICZ, D. Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Activation as the Main Mechanisms Underlying Graphene Toxicity against Human Cancer Cells. Hindawi Publishing Corporation, 2015.
KANG, J.; KO, Y.; KIM, J. P. et al. Microwave-assisted design of nanoporous graphene membrane for ultrafast and switchable organic solvent nanofiltration. Nat Commun 14, 901, 2023.
KIM, Y. et al. Low-temperature synthesis of graphene on nickel foil by microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition. AIP Publishing. Applied Physics Letters, 2011.
KUMAR, A.; DAR, M. A.; GUL, R.; BAEK, J. B. Graphene and molybdenum disulfide hybrids: Synthesis and applications. Materials Today, Volume 18, pp. 286-298, 2015.
KUMAR, A.; SHARMA, K.; DIXIT, A. R. (2019) A review of the mechanical and thermal properties of graphene and its hybrid polymer nanocomposites for structural applications. J Mater Sci 54(8):5992–6026, 2019.
KUMAR, A.; LIM, H. An overview of water electrolysis technologies for green hydrogen production. Energy Reports, Vol. 8, Pg. 13793-13813, 2022.
LAISSARDIÈRE, G. T. et al. Numerical analysis of electronic conductivity in graphene with resonant adsorbates: comparison of monolayer and Bernal bilayer. The European Physical Journal B, Vol. 90, Art. Nº 75, 2017.
LEE, C.; WEI, X.; KYSAR, J. W.; HONE, J. Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene. Science, v. 321, n. 5887, p. 385-388, 2008.
LI, X. et al. Large-Area Synthesis of High-Quality and Uniform Graphene Films on Copper Foils. Science. Vol. 324, Nº 5932, 2009.
LIU, S.; LU, W. et al. High-yield, large-scale production of few-layer graphene flakes within seconds: Using chlorosulfonic acid and H2O2 as exfoliating agents. Royal Society of Chemistry, Journal of Materials: Chemistry, Issue 18, 2012.
MBAYACHI, V. B. et al. Graphene synthesis, characterization and its applications: A review. Results Chem., Volume 3, Article 100163, 2021.
MERMIN, N. D. Crystalline Order in Two Dimensions. American Physical Society, 1968.
MOOSA, A. A.; ABED, M. S. Graphene preparation and graphite exfoliation. Turkish Journal of Chemistry, 2021.
PALLE, G.; SUNKO, D.K. Physical Limitations of the Hohenberg–Mermin–Wagner Theorem. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical, 2021.
PEIERLS, R. E. Quantum Theory of Solids. Clarendon Press, 1955.
RAO, C. N. R.; RAMAKRISHNA, M. H. S. S.; MAITRA, U. Graphene analogues of inorganic layered materials. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 52, pp. 13162-13185, 2013.
REINA A. et al. Large Area, Few-Layer Graphene Films on Arbitrary Substrates by Chemical Vapor Deposition. ACS Publications. Nano Letters, Vol 9/Issue 1, 2008.
SHAMS, S. S.; ZHANG, R. Graphene synthesis: A Review. Materials Science – Poland, 2015.
SHEN, Z.; YI, M. A review on mechanical exfoliation for the scalable production of graphene. Royal Society of Chemistry, Journal of Materials – Chemistry A, Issue 22, 2015.
SKORUPSKA, M.; ILNICKA, A.; LUKASZEWICZ, J. P. N-doped graphene foam obtained by microwave-assisted exfoliation of graphite. Nature, Scientific Reports 11, Article Number: 2044, 2021.
SRIVASTAV, A. K.; TIWARY, C. S.; TOUR, J. M.; HUSSAIN, C. M. Graphene Extraction from Waste: A Sustainable Synthesis Approach for Graphene and Its Derivatives. Elsevier Science, 2023.
TEOBALDI, G.; OHNISHI, H.; TANIMURA, K.; SHLUGER, A. L. The effect of van der Waals interactions on the properties of intrinsic defects in graphite. Carbon, Volume 48, Issue 14, 4145-4161, 2010.
TOUR, J. M. et al. Flash Graphene from Plastic Waste. American Chemical Society, ACS Nano, Vol 14/Issue 11, 2020.
TOUR, J. M. et al. Large-Scale Syntheses of 2D Materials: Flash Joule Heating and Other Methods. Wiley, Advanced Materials, Volume 34, Issue 8, 2021.
TOUR, J. M. et al. Upcycling end-of-life vehicle waste plastic into flash graphene. Nature, Communications Engineering 1, Art. Nº 3, 2022.
TOUR, J. M.; YAKOBSON, B. I. et al. Synthesis of Clean Hydrogen Gas from Waste Plastic at Zero Net Cost. Wiley, Advanced Materials, Volume 35, Issue 48, 2023.
ULLAH, Z. et al. A comparative study of graphene growth by APCVD, LPCVD and PECVD. Materials Research Express, Issue 3, Vol. 5, Art. 035606, 2018.
VARZAKAS, T.; TZIA, C. Handbook of food processing: food preservation. CRC Press LLC, 2015.
VIEIRA, J. E. D. Segundo; VILAR, E. O. Grafeno: Uma revisão sobre propriedades,
mecanismos de produção e potenciais aplicações em sistemas energéticos. Revista
Eletrônica de Materiais e Processos, v. 11, n. 2, p. 54-57, 2016.
WALLACE, P. R. The band theory of graphite. National Research Council of Canada, 1946.
XU, X. et al. Towards growth of pure AB-stacked bilayer graphene single crystals. Nano Research, Vol. 17, Pg. 4616–4621, 2024.
YEE, L. L. et al. Review on graphene and its derivatives: Synthesis methods and potential industrial implementation. Journal of Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, Vol. 98, pg. 163-180, 2019.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Autores que publicam nesta revista concordam com os seguintes termos:
- Autores mantém os direitos autorais e concedem ao periódico o direito de primeira publicação, com o trabalho simultaneamente licenciado sob a Licença Creative Commons Attribution que permite o compartilhamento do trabalho com reconhecimento da autoria e publicação inicial nesta revista.
- Autores têm autorização para assumir contratos adicionais, separadamente, para distribuição não-exclusiva da versão do trabalho publicada nesta revista (ex.: publicar em repositório institucional ou como capítulo de livro), com reconhecimento de autoria e publicação inicial nesta revista.
- Autores têm permissão e são estimulados a publicar e distribuir seu trabalho online (ex.: em repositórios institucionais ou na sua página pessoal) a qualquer ponto antes ou durante o processo editorial, já que isso pode gerar alterações produtivas, bem como aumentar o impacto e a citação do trabalho publicado (Veja O Efeito do Acesso Livre).
